Professional Advisory on Anti-Black Racism
Document
Introduction
Anti-Black racism is not a new issue in Canada and has occurred in the
education system for more than 160 years and includes the establishment of
segregated schools for Black students.1
The impact and legacy of anti-Black racism date back to the North American
Trans-Atlantic slave trade and the enslavement of Black people. Increased
attention is now being paid to anti-Black racism because of recent global
events.
Black people and communities are not a monolithic group and come from
diverse cultures, nationalities and have varying religions and customs. In
this advisory, Black will be used to describe racialized people who
self-identify as Black and/or are of African descent. The term anti-Black
racism will be used throughout this advisory, therefore it is important to
define it early. The term was first defined by Dr. Akua Benjamin, a
professor in the Social Work Department at Toronto Metropolitan University, who sought
to highlight the effects of systemic racism on Black Canadians.2
Ontario’s
Anti-Racism Directorate
defines anti-Black racism as prejudice, attitudes, beliefs, stereotyping
and discrimination directed at people of African descent and is rooted in
their unique history and experience of enslavement and its legacy.
Anti-Black racism is deeply embedded in Canadian institutions, policies
and practices such that it is normalized or deemed invisible to the larger
white society. Anti-Black racism is present in social, economic,
educational and political structures and organizations and it leads to
unequal opportunities, lower socio-economic status, higher unemployment,
underemployment, significant poverty rates and overrepresentation in the
criminal justice system.3
Urgent action on anti-Black racism is needed since racism and its
prevalence in public and private institutions have been studied for many
decades with recommendations that resonate today as they did in
generations past.
The Stephen Lewis Report on Race Relations in Ontario from June
1992 addressed racism in education and the same questions asked then are
still being asked almost 30 years later: “Where are the courses in
Black history? Where are the visible minority teachers? Why are there so
few role models? Why do our white guidance counsellors know so little of
different cultural backgrounds? Why are racist incidents and epithets
tolerated? Why are there double standards of discipline? Why are minority
students streamed? Why do they discourage us from university?”4
This professional advisory addresses anti-Black racism in education and
also highlights a recent amendment to the
Ontario College of Teachers Act, 1996
(OCTA), which now stipulates that “making remarks or engaging in
behaviours that expose any person or class of persons to hatred on the
basis of a prohibited ground of discrimination under Part I of the Human
Rights Code” is an act of professional misconduct. The amendment was
designed to put a stop to discrimination both in and out of the classroom.
The guidance and examples provided in this advisory are meant to augment
other resources and materials available to educators to help them
critically reflect on their practice. Ontario Certified Teachers (OCTs)
are encouraged to consult their employer policies, protocols, and Ministry
of Education (Ministry) resources for more information on anti-Black
racism.5
OCTs play an influential leadership role in the learning environment and
are uniquely positioned to help address anti-Black racism and its impact
on students given the space they occupy as influencers and educators. The
College also recognizes that it takes a systemic approach to take
meaningful action on anti-Black racism. Collective efforts not only by
teachers, but by principals, vice-principals and staff, are necessary to
address anti-Black racism. OCTs should be aware of the power they wield in
classrooms, administrative spaces and other learning environments, and how
that power can maintain and perpetuate a colonial culture and oppressive
approaches that adversely impact students, particularly Black students.
This professional advisory provides advice on ways in which educators can
improve their daily practice to proactively address anti-Black racism. The
goal is to provide support in creating inclusive and supportive learning
cultures that benefit all students, regardless of their identity. Given
the focus of school boards and government departments on anti-Black
racism, now is an ideal time for OCTs to examine their practice to
eliminate the barriers and mitigate the adverse impacts that anti-Black
racism causes.
Background information
The data shows that Black students face many more barriers and challenges
in the school system than students from other communities. Some of these
barriers and challenges include overrepresentation in programs and courses
that generally do not lead to post-secondary education studies and,
therefore, serve to perpetuate poor socioeconomic status in Black
communities.
In a 2014 study, the advocacy group People for Education, found that while
the practice of streaming students into programs based on ability was
supposed to have ended two decades ago, the practice continues and
disadvantages students, particularly those who identify as Black, as the
majority of those placed in the programs are Black. The group’s
research found that students in applied English and Math classes were less
likely to perform well on provincial standardized tests, graduate from
high school or pursue post-secondary education. Notably, the findings
showed that schools with more applied courses featured a higher enrolment
of students from low-income families.6
Data collected by the Black Demographic Data Advisory Committee of the
Ontario Alliance of Black Educators focused on Black student achievement
in a large urban school board and highlighted related disparities. The
data revealed that Black students are more than twice as likely as their
white peers to be suspended at least once during high school. Black
students are three times as likely as white students to be in the
Essentials program of study and two and a half times as likely to be in
applied. By contrast, white students are one and a half times as likely as
their Black peers to be in the academic program of study.7
Black students are overrepresented in special education programs and
underrepresented in others. More Black students are identified with
non-gifted special education needs. Only 0.4 per cent of Black students
are identified as gifted, compared to 4 per cent of their white
counterparts. Conversely, 16 per cent of white students are identified
with other special education needs compared with 26 per cent of Black
students.8
The impacts of anti-Black racism cut across economic, social, political
and educational domains and overshadow the hard work and positive
contributions of Black communities to Canadian society. OCTs may witness,
uphold or contribute to anti-Black racism practices that harm Black
learners and their families and caregivers.
The Ministry of Education’s
Equity Action Plan
points to the importance of working with parents, educators, principals,
board staff, trustees and the community, to identify and eliminate all
discriminatory practices, systemic barriers and bias in schools and
classrooms.9 The province’s
Equity and Inclusive Education Strategy
focuses on helping Ontario’s educators identify and remove
discriminatory biases and systemic barriers to support the achievement and
well-being of all students so they can reach their full potential.10
Examples of anti-Black racism
It is helpful for OCTs to understand what anti-Black racism looks like so
they can raise their awareness of circumstances where anti-Black racism
might factor into their approach to teaching, marking, disciplining and
supporting Black students. Anti-Black racism may take many forms and may
include:
-
Traditionally, school boards have been known to place students from
countries outside of Europe and North America in a lower grade without
taking the time to make an objective assessment of the student’s
capacity and previous educational attainment.
-
Hyper-surveillance of Black students, including prevalence of security
cameras inside and outside of school property, appearance of hall
monitors before, during and after school and regular police presence in
schools.
-
Educators selecting texts that portray Black people through a deficit
lens and reinforce negative stereotypes without offering options that
could counter the dominant negative narrative.
-
Reinforcing the racism of low academic expectations in feedback shared
to Black students or career advice given.
-
Introducing predominantly Eurocentric (i.e., white, patriarchal)
teaching materials in all subject areas of the curriculum that reinforce
white supremacy by diminishing, caricaturing or eliminating the
experiences and histories of other races, including Black people.
-
Besides school uniform policies, attempting to limit self and cultural
expression of Black students through restrictive dress codes, including
the banning of hats, do-rags or coats in classrooms. Often the inference
is that Black students might be concealing weapons in these items of
clothing.
-
Lack of opportunities to study or discuss Black contributions and
achievements to Canadian history except for the month of February (Black
History Month), where efforts may seem performative.
-
Directing Black students to pursue sports without the same encouragement
to pursue academic courses.
-
Using forms of discipline such as detentions, suspensions and expulsions
at a disproportionately higher rate for Black students, often in ways
that are overly punitive in relation to the offence.
Heightened awareness and deliberate and urgent action are necessary to
dismantle the systemic oppression and racism that Black students and their
families and caregivers often experience. “Experiences with
streaming, teacher expectations, testing, and the ways in which the low
educational performance of Black students have become normalized, of
course, speak of a schooling structure and climate that sustain anti-Black
racism.”11
Ontario’s educators are best positioned to lead efforts to support
an inclusive learning environment. The notion of being a passive bystander
is not conducive to active engagement in decolonizing existing pedagogical
structures. Demonstrating competency in equity-related principles,
including anti-Black racism, is important for professionals, including
educators.
The Ontario College of Teachers believes in a collaborative approach to
supporting the professional development of its members, which includes a
commitment to deepening understanding and awareness of anti-Black racism
and the importance of taking action against it. Considering the policy
directives that are being issued by governments at all levels, OCTs need
to be cognizant of policies, initiatives and best practices that inform
their practice. It is also important to make a commitment to changing
attitudes and behaviours in ways that eliminate anti-Black racism from the
learning environment.
The role of Ontario Certified Teachers
Professional standards
The College’s
Ethical Standards for the Teaching Profession
and
the Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession
provide the foundation for professional conduct.
The Standards of Practice explicitly identify ethical knowledge
as a core dimension of professional knowledge for educators. The ethical
knowledge of individual practitioners and the collective ethical knowledge
of the profession must continue to evolve to help ensure that ethical
school cultures, pedagogies, policies and practices permeate
Ontario’s educational environment to help all students succeed.
The ethical standards explicitly address the ethical responsibilities and
commitments of educators. The four ethical standards of care, respect,
trust and integrity are interrelated principles that guide
educators’ individual and collective action, consciousness and
knowledge. Special attention needs to be taken to ensure that bias does
not adversely impact the way the ethical standards are applied to some
students, particularly those who identify as Black. The standard of
respect specifies that members of the teaching profession must honour
human dignity, emotional wellness and cognitive development. In their
professional practice, they model respect for spiritual and cultural
values, social justice, confidentiality, freedom, democracy and the
environment.
These ethical responsibilities are critically important in efforts to
combat anti-Black racism. A welcoming learning environment for Black
students requires an understanding of the importance of dismantling
oppressive, colonial attitudes and practices. Educators should strive to
be competent in anti-racist practices to effectively address anti-Black
racism. Honouring human dignity and respecting social justice demands an
understanding of anti-racism.
Professional responsibilities
OCTs play an important role in developing a learning environment that
helps instill a sense of confidence, support and belonging for all
students. Data from the Towards Race Equity in Education report
shows that Black students are more likely to drop out of school than other
students.12 Studies show that this is
due in part to the low expectations set by teachers, guidance counsellors
and administrators.
Stereotyping and prejudice are often directed at Black students,
particularly male youth, who consider staying in school more harmful to
their sense of worth than leaving. “It was not that students did not
understand the value of education or that parents did not understand the
significance of participating in their children’s school; instead,
it is that they do not find schools to be welcoming. And some of the
student participants added that in schools with large numbers of Black
students, the stereotypes of them seem much more pervasive, thereby
contributing to a learning environment that is not conducive to academic
success.”13
Educators’ ongoing critical reflection of their professional
practice is crucial to positive student outcomes. Educators need to be
thinking critically about who is being omitted from curriculum design,
classroom culture, extracurricular programming and other learning
opportunities.
The College urges all members to take its three-part Additional
Qualification course on anti-Black racism for members, Anti-Black Racism Additional Qualification Guideline: Addressing Anti-Black Racism to Change Pedagogy and Practice, Part 1,
Part 2 and Specialist
(available through education providers beginning in the fall of
2022).
This course was created to provide opportunities for educators to
self-reflect, deepen knowledge and build competencies. The course was
developed collaboratively through community consultations, focused
conversations and surveys with Black students, educational leaders and
community members across Ontario, in both English and French, and is
designed for:
-
Critically exploring and enhancing professional practices, critical
pedagogies, knowledge and skills as outlined in the
Anti-Black Racism Additional Qualification Guideline: Addressing Anti-Black Racism to Change Pedagogy and Practice,
course (Part 1);
-
Critically designing, applying and facilitating dialogue related to
learning opportunities that integrate the professional knowledge, skills
and pedagogical stances as outlined in the
Anti-Black Racism Additional Qualification Guideline: Addressing Anti-Black Racism to Change Pedagogy and Practice
course (Part 2); and
-
Critically and collaboratively cultivating professional efficacy,
emancipatory liberatory leadership practices, and advancing the
scholarship of teaching by fostering cultures of critical reflection and
inquiry as outlined in the
Anti-Black Racism Additional Qualification Guideline: Addressing Anti-Black Racism to Change Pedagogy and Practice
(Specialist).
Black students are present in school boards across Ontario and while the
provincial
Anti-Black Racism Strategy
targets regions with large numbers of Black students, the need to
implement measures to reduce and eliminate anti-Black racism is relevant
in every school. Some of the initiatives being explored by school boards
in the province include:
Several Catholic School Boards are also addressing anti-Black racism.
These school boards’ examples point to the need for resources that
address anti-Black racism. The College is aware that a one-size-fits-all
approach will not have the desired impact of enhancing educational
outcomes for those impacted by anti-Black racism. It is important to
understand the community context, familial circumstances and needs, and
each student’s goals and dreams. Such an approach requires
co-designing and developing anti-oppressive approaches that foster a sense
of belonging. Students thrive when they know that they are supported by
caring, understanding teachers, guidance counsellors and administrators
who are responsive to their needs.
Self-reflective practice
OCTs are encouraged to hone their capacity for honest self-reflection (see
A Self-Reflective Professional Learning Tool) and critical thinking about anti-Black racism by regularly engaging in
the following steps:
-
Critically self-reflecting and examining how one’s position,
power, privilege and advantage are used to maintain systems of
oppression and colonialism and how that power, privilege and advantage
can be shifted to dismantle those systems.
-
Creating safe spaces for Black students and their families to reach out
to educators to discuss their academic program and well-being.
-
Actively listening to the concerns of Black students and co-developing
strategies to address them as an education team.
-
Participating in conversations and research about anti-Black racism as a
way to enhance understanding on the topic.
-
Developing a culture of belonging by inviting input on the types of
material, readings, events and guest speakers that demonstrate a
commitment to anti-oppressive, decolonial pedagogical practices.
-
Proactively denouncing incidents of racism, including anti-Black racism,
when they occur in the learning environment.
-
Reducing defensiveness when issues of anti-Black racism are raised in
the learning environment.
-
Engaging in affirming classroom practices that include restorative
justice principles when redirecting Black students.
-
Recognizing the impact of conscious and unconscious bias in the learning
environment and being actively aware of the biases and stereotypes about
Black people that are brought into the learning environment.
-
Enhancing awareness of the adverse impacts of anti-Black racism by
committing to learning more about the issue, and to unlearning practices
and approaches that are systemically embedded and that cause harm to
Black students.
-
Making efforts to actively engage with diverse communities to help
enhance pedagogical practices, for example by actively engaging with
diverse communities, or seeking guidance from experts in the field.
-
Learning more about Black history and the positive contributions made by
people of African descent and including these learnings in the
curriculum.
-
Becoming familiar with what local and other jurisdictions and school
boards are doing to address anti-Black racism and considering which
actions can be adopted into professional practice.
Legal and disciplinary considerations
The regulation that defines what constitutes professional misconduct in
teaching has been changed to help demonstrate the College’s
commitment to inclusion, diversity and addressing systemic racism. It is
an important time to acknowledge that competency is required around
principles of equity, diversity, inclusion and anti-racism.
Ontario Regulation 437/97: Professional Misconduct, made under the
Ontario College of Teachers Act, 1996, now includes “making remarks or engaging in behaviours that
expose any person or class of persons to hatred on the basis of a
prohibited ground of discrimination under Part I of the Human Rights
Code.”
The prohibited grounds under the
Human Rights Code
include the following: “Race, ancestry, place of origin, colour,
ethnic origin, citizenship, creed, sex, sexual orientation, gender
identity, gender expression, age, marital status, family status or
disability.”
This new provision applies, but is not limited to, the following
circumstances:
- Conduct occurring inside and outside the classroom;
- Off-duty conduct;
- Conduct or remarks made electronically;
- Behaviour or remarks made to anyone.
According to a recent Statistics Canada report, hateful incidents are on
the rise. Given the diverse population of Canada, this is cause for
concern. The report identifies Black and Jewish populations as the most
targeted, which further highlights the levels of stress and
marginalization that Black people often face, despite their efforts to
contribute meaningfully to their communities.19
OCTs are in a position of influence and trust and play a key role in
creating an educational environment that supports all students. They must
be seen to be impartial and tolerant.20
They must never create or contribute to a poisoned educational environment
characterized by a lack of equality or intolerance.21
OCTs can be found guilty of professional misconduct if they play a role in
creating a poisoned educational environment where students are likely to
feel isolated and/or suffer a loss of self-esteem on the basis of a
prohibited ground of discrimination.22
Furthermore, misconduct can be established where, in the circumstances, it
can be reasonably asserted that the member’s (off-duty) conduct
poisoned the educational environment.23
It is important to note that intent may play a role in determining the
severity of the misconduct and how it resonates with the adversely
affected minority group. The perspectives and experiences of others
matter. OCTs should act with the awareness that race, nationality,
cultural diversity, differing faith or sexual orientation, disabilities
and socioeconomic factors can affect experiences. What an educator
potentially considers well-intentioned may not be experienced the same way
by a student, parent, colleague or community member from Black
communities. It is for this reason that OCTs should develop competency in
addressing anti-Black racism and take advantage of the resources that are
available to help enhance their practice. Demonstrations of impartiality
and tolerance will not suffice when fostering learning environments that
are inclusive and anti-oppressive. OCTs and those with power and influence
must also demonstrate empathy, respect and understanding of the lived
experience of students, particularly those who identify as Black. It
should be noted that feelings of isolation and loss of self-esteem are but
a few of the adverse impacts of anti-Black racism, which is why it is
important to reinforce the serious nature of anti-Black racism and the
consequences of failing to address it.
Conclusion
It is important to recognize that anti-Black racism must be addressed
collaboratively by all stakeholders in the education system. Moreover,
change will not occur in the education system if one is not prepared to
critically self-reflect on the ways in which positions of power and
privilege perpetuate and contribute to systemic racism.
The College is taking important steps to further protect students and to
eradicate systemic racism. The College’s resources, including the
ethical framework, the updated regulation -
Ontario Regulation 437/97: Professional Misconduct, the new additional qualification course, and this professional advisory
provide a basis for the ongoing development and implementation of
equitable and anti-racist learning environments. Once applied and
practised, enhanced educational outcomes should be the result of
collective efforts to address anti-Black racism and its impact on Black
students and those who care for and support them.
Resources
OCTs seeking to broaden their perspective on anti-Black racism and
anti-racist approaches can also consult the following resources:
-
City of Toronto –
Confronting Anti-Black Racism Unit (CABR) – Resources
-
Ontario’s Anti-Racism Plan
-
Ontario’s Anti-Racism Directorate
-
Canada’s Anti-Racism Strategy
-
Ontario’s Equity And Inclusive Education Strategy
-
Review of the Peel District School Board
Reviewers Ena Chadha, Suzanne Herbert, and Shawn Richard, February 28,
2020
-
Statistics Canada Report, February 2020: Canada’s Black
Population: Education, labour and resilience
-
Ontario’s Anti-Black Racism Strategy (2021)
-
Anti-Black Racism Strategy
-
ETFO Action on Anti-Black Racism
James, C.E. & Turner, T. (2017).
Towards Race Equity In Education: The Schooling of Black students in
the Greater Toronto Area. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: York University
-
Doing Right: What Collective Actions can Advance Equity for Black
Youth? To learn more, see
Doing Right for Black Youth: What We Learned from the Community
Engagement Sessions for the Ontario Black Youth Action Plan
-
ABR in Ontario's systems
-
People for Education
-
Ontario Human Rights Commission
-
YRDSB Dismantling Anti-Black Racism Strategy
-
Addressing Anti-Black Racism in Canadian Schools
-
Racism in Our Schools
Definitions
The following websites were consulted in providing definitions for this
advisory:
The definitions included here are not limited to the ones used in this
advisory and includes terms you may come across in your own research and
additional learning.
- Anti-racism/anti-oppression:
-
an active and consistent process of change to eliminate individual,
institutional and systemic racism as well as the oppression and
injustice racism causes.
- Adverse impact:
-
having a harmful result. Sometimes treating everyone the same will have
a negative effect on some people.
- African Canadian:
- a Canadian of African origin or descent.
- Barrier:
-
anything that prevents a person from fully taking part in all aspects of
society, including physical, architectural, information or
communications, attitudinal, economic and technological barriers, as
well as policies or practices.
- Bias:
-
a predisposition, prejudice or generalization about a group of persons
based on personal characteristics or stereotypes.
- Bigotry:
-
intolerance, negative attitudes or stereotypes related to another
person’s creed, race, sexual orientation, etc.
- Black:
-
a social construct referring to people who have dark skin colour and/or
other related racialized characteristics. The term has become less of an
indicator of skin colour and more of racialized characteristics. Diverse
societies apply different criteria to determine who is Black.
The Canadian Press style guides are the authoritative and
accepted standard for Canadian writing. The latest guide specifies
capitalizing the term Black. In addition, the capitalization of this
term is done to empower the Black culture, while highlighting the fact
that this term was used by the larger white society to remove individual
Black identity.
- Colonialism/decolonization:
-
the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control
over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it
economically – the notion of domination over a marginalized
community. Decolonization involves efforts to interrupt and dismantle
colonial power structures.
- Cultural competence:
-
an ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures,
particularly in human resources, non-profit organizations, and
government agencies whose employees work with persons from different
cultural/ethnic backgrounds. Cultural competence has four components:
- Awareness of one’s own cultural worldview;
- Attitude towards cultural differences;
- Knowledge of different cultural practices and worldviews;
-
Cross-cultural skills (developing cultural competence results in an
ability to understand, communicate with and effectively interact
with people across cultures).
- Decolonizing pedagogy:
-
making space for learners to co-create the content of the curriculum in
ways that respect diversity and embrace inclusion, while actively
advocating for equity of outcomes for each student.
- Discrimination:
-
treating someone unfairly by either imposing a burden on them, or
denying them a privilege, benefit or opportunity enjoyed by others,
because of their race, citizenship, family status, disability, sex or
other personal characteristics (note: this is not a legal definition).
- Diversity:
-
the presence of a wide range of human qualities and attributes within an
individual, group or organization. Diversity includes such factors as
age, sex, race, ethnicity, physical and intellectual ability, religion,
sexual orientation, educational background and expertise.
- Equity:
-
fairness, impartiality, even-handedness. A distinct process of
recognizing differences within groups of individuals and using this
understanding to achieve substantive equality in all aspects of a
person’s life.
- Inclusion:
-
appreciating and using our unique differences – strengths,
talents, weaknesses and frailties – in a way that shows respect
for the individual and ultimately creates a dynamic multi-dimensional
organization.
- Inclusive education:
-
education that is based on the principles of acceptance and inclusion of
all students. Students see themselves reflected in their curriculum,
their physical surroundings, and the broader environment, in which
diversity is honoured and all individuals are respected.
- Individual racism:
-
individual racism is structured by an ideology (set of ideas, values and
beliefs) that frames one’s negative attitudes towards others; and
is reflected in the willful, conscious/unconscious, direct/indirect, or
intentional/unintentional words or actions of individuals.
- Institutional racism:
-
institutional racism exists in organizations or institutions where the
established rules, policies, and regulations are both informed by, and
inform, the norms, values, and principles of institutions. These in
turn, systematically produce differential treatment of, or
discriminatory practices towards, various groups based on race.
- Race:
-
there is no such thing as race – instead, it is a “social
construct.” This means that society forms ideas of race based on
geographic, historical, political, economic, social and cultural
factors, as well as physical traits, even though none of these can
legitimately be used to classify groups of people.
- Racialization:
-
the process by which societies construct races as real, different and
unequal in ways that matter and affect economic, political and social
life.
- Racism:
-
a belief that one group is superior or inferior to others based on race.
Racism can be openly displayed in racial jokes, slurs or hate crimes. It
can also be more deeply rooted in attitudes, values and stereotypical
beliefs. In some cases, people don’t even realize they have these
beliefs. Instead, they are assumptions that have evolved over time and
have become part of systems and institutions.
- Stereotype:
-
incorrect assumption based on things like race, colour, ethnic origin,
dictionaryplace of origin, religion, etc. Stereotyping typically
involves attributing the same characteristics to all members of a group
regardless of their individual differences. It is often based on
misconceptions, incomplete information and/or false generalizations.
- Systemic barrier:
-
a barrier embedded in the social or administrative structures of an
organization, including the physical accessibility of an organization,
organizational policies, practices and decision-making processes, or the
culture of an organization. These may appear neutral on the surface, but
exclude members of groups protected by the Human Rights Code.
- Systemic discrimination:
-
patterns of behaviour, policies or practices that are part of the social
or administrative structures of an organization, and which create or
perpetuate a position of relative disadvantage for groups identified
under the Human Rights Code.
- Whiteness:
-
a dominant cultural space with enormous political significance, with the
purpose to keep others on the margin.
- White supremacy:
-
the belief that white people constitute a superior race and should
therefore dominate society, typically to the exclusion or detriment of
other racial and ethnic groups, in particular Black or Jewish
people.24
Back to top
-
theconversation.com/black-history-how-racism-in-ontario-schools-today-is-connected-to-a-history-of-segregation-147633
-
blackhealthalliance.ca/home/antiblack-racism
-
ontario.ca/document/data-standards-identification-and-monitoring-systemic-racism/glossary
-
ia903104.us.archive.org/22/items/stephenlewisrepo00lewi/stephenlewisrepo00lewi.pdf
-
Ontario’s framework for continued learning: Learn at Home
Portal;
Bill 48, the Safe and Supportive Classrooms Act, 2019;
A Safe and Welcoming School Environment
-
peopleforeducation.ca/our-work/a-statement-from-people-for-education-on-anti-black-racism/
-
onabse.org/YCEC-TDSBFactSheet1.pdf
- ibid
- Education Equity Action Plan
-
Ontario's Equity and Inclusive Education Strategy
-
James, C.E. & Turner, T. (2017).
Towards Race Equity In Education: The Schooling of Black Students
in the Greater Toronto Area. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: York University
-
edu.yorku.ca/files/2017/04/Towards-Race-Equity-in-Education-April-2017.pdf
- ibid
-
ontario.ca/page/ontarios-anti-black-racism-strategy
-
hcdsb.org/our-board/human-rights-and-equity/anti-racism/
-
dcdsb.ca/Modules/search/index.aspx?q=anti%20black%20racism
-
ldcsb.ca/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=1076300&type=d&pREC_ID=1372488
-
ocdsb.ca/news/responding_to_anti-_black_racism__resources
-
150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00002-eng.htm
-
Ross v. New Brunswick School District No. 15, [1996] 1 S.C.R. 825 at para. 111 [Ross].
- Ibid at para. 49.
- Ibid at paras. 40 and 82.
- Ibid at paras. 40, 41, 46, 82, 101, and 111.
- Google’s Oxford Languages dictionary
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